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Лингвистический фон деловой корреспонденции (Linguistic Background of Business Correspondence) - (диплом)p>Although non-verbal communication can stand alone, it frequently works with speech. Our words carry part of the message, and non-verbal signals carry the rest. Together, the two modes of expression make a powerful team, augmenting, reinforcing, and clarifying each other. Experts in non-verbal communication suggest that it have six specific functions: • To provide information, either consciously or unconsciously • To regulate the flow of conversation• To express emotion • To qualify, complement, contradict, or expand verbal messages • To control or influence others • To facilitate specific tasks, such as teaching a person to swing a golf club. Non-verbal communication plays a role in business too. For one thing, it helps establish credibility and leadership potential. If you can learn to manage the impression you create with your body language, facial characteristics, voice, and appearance, you can do a great deal to communicate that you are competent, trustworthy, and dynamic. For example, Wal-Mart founder Sam Walton has developed a homespun style that puts people at ease, thereby helping them to be more receptive, perhaps even more open. Furthermore, if you can learn to read other people's non-verbal messages, you will be able to interpret their underlying attitudes and intentions more accurately. When dealing with co-workers, customers, and clients, watch carefully for small signs that reveal how the conversation is going. If you aren't having the effect you want, check your words; then, if your words are all right, try to be aware of the non-verbal meanings you are transmitting. At the same time, stay tuned to the non-verbal signals that the other person is sending. Although you can express many things non-verbally, there are limits to what you can communicate without the help of language. If you want to discuss past events, ideas, or abstractions, you need words—symbols that stand for thoughts — arranged in meaningful patterns. In the English language, we have a 750, 000, although most of us recognize only about 20, 000 of them. To create a thought with these words, we arrange them according to the rules of grammar, putting the various parts of speech in the proper sequence We then transmit the message in spoken or written form, hoping that someone will hear or read what we have to say. Figure 1. 1 shows how much time business people devote to the various types of verbal communication. They use speaking and writing to send messages; they use listening and reading to receive them. When it comes to sending business messages, speaking is more common than writing. Giving instructions, conducting interviews, working in small groups, attending meetings, and making speeches are all important activities. Even though writing may be less common, it is important too. When you want to send a complex message of lasting significance, you will probably want to put it in writing. It's important to remember that effective communication is a two-way street. People in business spend more time obtaining information than transmitting it, so to do their jobs effectively, they need good listening and reading skills. Unfortunately, most of us are not very good listeners. Immediately after hearing a ten-minute speech, we typically remember only half of what was said. A few days later, we've forgotten three-quarters of the message. To some extent, our listening problems stem from our education, or lack of it. We spend years learning to express our ideas, but few of us ever take a course in listening. Similarly, our reading skills often leave a good deal to be desired. Recent studies indicate that approximately 38 percent of the adults in the United States have trouble reading the help-wanted ads in the newspaper, 14 percent cannot fill out a check properly, 26 percent can't figure out the deductions listed on their paycheques, and 20 percent are functionally illiterate. Even those who do read may not know how to read effectively. They have trouble extracting the important points from a document, so they cannot make the most of the information presented. College student are probably better at listening and reading than are many other people, partly because they get so much practice. On the basis of our own experience, no doubt realise that our listening and reading efficiency varies tremendously, depending on how we approach the task. Obtaining and remembering information takes a special effort. Although listening and reading obviously differ, both require a similar approach. The first step is to register the information, which means that you must tune out distractions and focus your attention. You must then interpret and evaluate the information, respond in some fashion, and file away the data for future reference. The most important part of this process is interpretation and evaluation, which is no easy matter. While absorbing the material, we must decide what is important and what isn't. One approach is to look for the main ideas and the most important supporting details, rather than trying to remember everything we read or hear. If we can discern the structure of the material, we can also understand the relationships among the ideas. If we're doing business in London, we obviously won't have much of a language problem. We may encounter a few unusual terms or accents in the 29 countries in which English is an official language, but our problems will be relatively minor. Language barriers will also be relatively minor when we are dealing with people who use English as a second language (and some 650 million people fall into this category). Some of these millions are extremely fluent; others have only an elementary command of English. Although you may miss a few subtleties in dealing with those who are less fluent in English, we’ll still be able to communicate. The pitfall to watch for is assuming that the other person understands everything we say, even slang, local idioms, and accents. One group of English-speaking Japanese who moved to the United States as employees of Toyota had to enroll in a special course to learn that "Jeat yet? " means "Did you eat yet? " and that "Cannahepya? " means "Can I help you? " One survey of 100 companies engaged in international business revealed that between 95 and 99 percent of their business letters to other countries are written in English. Moreover, 59 percent of the respondents reported that the foreign letters they receive are usually written in English, although they also receive letters written in Spanish and French. Other languages are rare in international business correspondence. Because many international business letters are written in English, North American firms do not always have to worry about translating their correspondence. However, even when both parties write in English, minor interpretation problems do exist because of different usage of technical terms. These problems do not usually pose a major barrier to communication, especially if correspondence between the two parties continues and each gradually learns the terminology of the other. More significant problems arise in other forms of written communication that require translation. Advertisements, for example, are almost always translated into the language of the country in which the products are being sold. Documents such as warranties, repair and maintenance manuals, and product labels also require translation. In addition, some multinational companies must translate policy and procedure manuals and benefit plans for use in overseas offices. Reports from foreign subsidiaries to the home office may also be written in one language and then translated into another. Sometimes the translations aren't very good. For example, the well-known slogan "Come alive with Pepsi" was translated literally for Asian markets as "Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the grave, " with unfortunate results. Part of the message is almost inevitably lost during any translation process, sometimes with major consequences. Oral communication usually presents more problems than written communication. If you have ever studied a foreign language, you know from personal experience that it's easier to write in a foreign language than to conduct a conversation. Even if the other person is speaking English, you're likely to have a hard time understanding the pronunciation if the person is not proficient in English. Idiomatic expressions are another source of confusion. If you tell a foreigner that a certain product "doesn't cut the mustard, " chances are that you will fail to communicate. Even when the words make sense, their meanings may differ according to the situation. For example, suppose that you are dining with a German woman who speaks English quite well. You inquire, "More bread? " She says, "Thank you, " so you pass the bread. She looks confused, then takes the breadbasket and sets it down without taking any. In German, thank you (danke) can also be used as a polite refusal. If the woman had wanted more bread, she would have used the word please (bitte in German). The primary tools for communicating information in business include e-mail messages, memos, letters, reports, phone calls, meetings, and conversations. To determine which is the best to use in a given situation, start by asking yourself the following questions: · How much information do I have to pass along? Because of its speed and informality, e-mail is ideal for routine communication between coworkers. For instance, an e-mail message is usually the best means of announcing a new policy, introducing a recent hire, informing colleagues of a meeting time, and reminding an employee of an approaching deadline. E-mail messages are also useful for day-to-day or extremely timely exchanges with people outside the company. Because of their low cost, they often are preferred for communicating with overseas contacts. Although e-mail messages are now used instead of memos for most intercompany communication, memos are still suitable for notes sent to people higher in the company hierarchy, especially in conservative companies. The memo is also appropriate for lengthy, formal communications to coworkers that may eventually be circulated to your supervisors or to contacts in other companies. The letter is now used primarily for formal correspondence with clients, customers, and others outside the company, particularly people you have not met. Imagine, for instance, that you need to ask for advice or information from someone you do not know personally. The person will likely give a letter more attention than an e-mail message because a letter conveys an added element of formality and courtesy. Reports A complex document of more than ten pages, especially one that will be shown to outside contacts, is best presented as a report. A routine report can be easily produced using a word processor and a laser printer. Important reports for potential clients, stockholders, or others you might want to impress usually should be professionally designed and printed, often in full color on heavy or glossy paper. The main advantage of a phone conversation is that it allows both parties to respond to each other immediately. If you and a coworker have several questions for each other, asking them in a single phone call is usually less time-consuming than exchanging a long series of e-mail messages. Personal matters or topics that might elicit a highly emotional response are best discussed in person. As common sense will tell you, sending an e-mail or memo reading “You’re fired! ” is not the most delicate or responsible way of dealing with a difficult situation. Face-to-face meetings are usually the safest way of communicating confidential information. Meetings are also useful when a quick group decision is needed on a particular problem or issue. Important side benefits of meetings are that they allow employees in different departments or divisions to become acquainted and can often foster a sense of shared mission among coworkers. Intercultural business writing falls into the same general categories as other forms of business writing. How you handle these categories depends on the subject and purpose of your message, the relationship between you and the reader, and the customs of the person to whom the message is addressed. Letters are the most common form of intercultural business correspondence. They serve the same purposes and follow the same basic organizational plans (direct and indirect) as letters you would send within your own country. Unless you are personally fluent in the language of the intended readers, you should ordinarily write your letters in English or have them translated by a professional translator. If you and the reader speak different languages, be especially concerned with achieving clarity: • Use short, precise words that say exactly what you mean. • Rely on specific terms to explain your points. Avoid abstractions altogether, or illustrate them with concrete examples. • Stay away from slang, jargon, and buzz words. Such words rarely translate well. Nor do idioms and figurative expressions. Abbreviations, tscfo-nyms (such as NOKAI) and CAD/CAM), and North American product names may also lead to confusion. • Construct sentences that are shorter and simpler than those you might use when writing to someone fluent in English. • Use short paragraphs. Each paragraph should stick to one topic and be no more than eight to ten lines. • Help readers follow your train of thought by using transitional devices. Precede related points with expressions like in addition and first, second, third. • Use numbers, visual aids, and pre-printed forms to clarify your message. These devices are generally understood in most cultures. Your word choice should also reflect the relationship between you and the reader. In general, be somewhat more formal than you would be in writing to people in your own culture. In many other cultures, people use a more elaborate, old-fashioned style, and you should gear your letters to their expectations. However, do not carry formality to extremes, or you will sound unnatural. In terms of format, the two most common approaches for intercultural business letters are the block style (with blocked paragraphs) and the modified block style (with indented paragraphs). You may use either the American format for dates (with the month, day, and year, in that order) or the European style (with the day before the month and year). For the salutation, use Dear (Title/Last Name). Close the letter with Sincerely or Sincerely yours, and sign it personally. If you correspond frequently with people in foreign countries, your letterhead should include the name of your country and cable or telex information. Send your letters by air mail, and ask that responses be sent that way as well. Check the postage too; rates for sending mail to most other countries are not the same as rates for sending it within your own. In the letters you receive, you will notice that people in other countries use different techniques for their correspondence. If you are aware of some of these practices, you will be able to concentrate on the message without passing judgement on the writers. Their approaches are not good or bad, just different. The Japanese, for example, are slow to come to the point. Their letters typically begin with a remark about the season or weather. This is followed by an inquiry about your health or congratulations on your prosperity. A note of thanks for your patronage might come next. After these preliminaries, the main idea is introduced. If the letter contains bad news, the Japanese begin not with a buffer, but with apologies for disappointing you. Letters from Latin America look different too. Instead of using letterhead stationery, Latin American companies use a cover page with their printed seal in the centre. Their letters appear to be longer, because they use much wider margins. Memos and reports sent overseas fall into two general categories: those written to and from subsidiaries, branches, or joint venture partners and those written to clients or other outsiders. When the memo or report has an internal audience, the style may differ only slightly from that of a memo or report written for internal use in North America. Because sender and recipient have a working relationship and share a common frame of reference, many of the language and cultural barriers that lead to misunderstandings have already been overcome. However, if the reader's native language is not English, you should take extra care to ensure clarity: Use concrete and explicit words, simple and direct sentences, short paragraphs, headings, and many transitional devices. If the memo or report is written for an external audience, the style of the document should be relatively formal and impersonal. If possible, the format should be like that of reports typically prepared or received by the audience. In the case of long, formal reports, it is also useful to discuss reporting requirements and expectations with the recipient beforehand and to submit a preliminary draft for comments before delivering the final report. Many international transactions involve shipping and receiving goods. A number of special-purpose documents are required to handle these transactions: price quotations, invoices, bills of lading, time drafts, letters of credit, correspondence with international freight forwarders, packing lists, shipping documents, and collection documents. Many of these documents are standard forms; you simply fill in the data as clearly and accurately as possible in the spaces provided. Samples are ordinarily available in a company's files if it frequently does business abroad. If not, you may obtain descriptions of the necessary documentation from the United States Department of Commerce, International Trade Administration, Washington, D. C. , 20230. (For Canadian information, contact the Department of External Affairs, Trade Division, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OG2. ) When preparing forms, pay particular attention to the method you use for stating weights and measures and money values. The preferred method is to use the other country's system of measurement and its currency values for documenting the transaction; however, if your company uses U. S. or Canadian weights, measures, and dollars, you should follow that policy. Check any conversion calculations carefully. In personal meetings, talks take priority over writing, yet appointments and travel arrangements often involve correspondence. Even if appointments have been made verbally it is wise to confirm them in writing, as a letter is clearer to all parties concerned than a telephone message, where it is easy to misinterpret dates and places. Travel arrangements can, of course, be made without writing letters. However, correspondence is necessary if accommodation is to be booked abroad, or if one is to travel further from places outside one's own country. e. g. As mentioned in my letter of 9 August, I am planning to spend a few days in London next month, on my way to the United States. The dates are now settled: I shall at Heathrow on Wednesday, 3 September (Flight BA 602 15 30) and leave on Friday night. I shall be staying at the Cumberland Hotel, Marble Arch, London W1. On September 3 I already have some appointments, but could come to your office any time on Thursday, 4 September. Would you kindly leave a message at my hotel letting me know what time would suit you. One of the most important matters to be discussed is the percentage of commission you could give us for distributing your SELECT copier in Egypt. As we have already indicated, 10% is unacceptable to us: we require at least 12% if we are to do a good job of selling this equipment in Egypt. In the hope that we can come to terms, and looking forward to meeting you, I am, A formal invitation, usually in the form of a letter or printed card, is written in the third person, and replies also follow the same style. Other invitations are written less formally. Any written invitations should be answered in writing too, not by phone. A distinction is made between a formal invitation, a semi-formal and informal invitation, and the correct form of reply to each is indicated. e. g. On behalf of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Organizing Committee of the 10th International congress on brain surgery I have the honour and pleasure of extending to you an invitation to participate in the work of Congress and to give a lecture at the Plenary Session covering your area of research. An early reply to this letter would be appreciated. I very much regret that I am unable to accept your kind invitation to a Reception to be held in Hotel Ritz at seven o’clock on Friday, the tenth of March, 2000, as I have already accepted a previous invitation for that date and time. Yours Truly, to join them in celebrating the graduation of their daughter, Jane Saturday, the twentieth of June, at 4 o'clock It is a matter of courtesy to write to your host personally if you have enjoyed his/her company's hospitality. Here you can see how to express thanks for the fulfilment of other requests, too. e. g. It was a pleasure meeting you today, Mr Smith. You couldn't have chosen a better restaurant. The food was superb. Thank you. I am glad we had plenty of time to discuss the construction project. You helped clear up almost all the questions I had. And you pointed me in the right direction to find the answers to the few queries I have left. I look forward to meeting you again in the near future. I will call you when I return from my trip to the head office and then it will be my pleasure to treat you to lunch. Regards, Congratulations on getting married, Jim. Best wishes to you and your bride for a long and happy life together. Now that you are changing your status, we need to discuss your health insurance and retirement plans. As well, I would like to explain our company policies as they affect you and your wife. Could you drop by my office as soon as you return from your honeymoon so that we can talk? Employment: Applications, Letters of Recommendation, Giving notice When writing a letter of application, the applicant would like to say what job and conditions he or she would like to have. But a good letter of application should contain facts the prospective employer wants to know, for instance what experience the applicant has, how useful he or she will be to the company. If he has held several positions, it would be advisable for the applicant to submit a personal data sheet, the curriculum vitae, containing full personal details and information on the past experience, education and certificates or degrees, special qualifications, and possibly references. The letter then can serve to draw the reader's attention to the candidates' suitability for the vacancy. If you are starting your career and have had one or two jobs, or none at all, all the particulars can be included in the letter itself. A contract of employment defines the conditions of work, the working hours, holidays allowed, responsibilities and notice. It may contain a job description and give information on fringe benefits such as company pension scheme, bonuses, expenses and commission where applicable. When employment is terminated by either party, notice has to be given in writing and the set period observed. e. g. This letter is in response to your advertisement in the Financial Times on November 25, l998 for a position of secretary. I have three years experience in the field of market research. I am ready for long hours and travel required to be an effective personal secretary. My resume is attached for your resource. I have been working for “Newborn Electronics” for 7 years and I always enjoyed and valued my job. As well I always enjoyed and valued my salary. However the total crisis in the country and the recent ruble inflation make me ask for a certain adjustment of my salary which is now 8. 000 rubles. Three months ago this sum equaled to approx. 530 US dollars while today it is less the 200 US dollars. Taking into consideration the above calculations I am requesting a salary adjustment of 17. 000 rubles. Thank you in advance for your prompt consideration of this matter. Sincerely Yours, Your work has been excellent. However, your absentee record is now overshadowing your work record. I realize that your health has been poor but one of our job requirements is regular attendance. We have difficulty scheduling when we cannot depend on your attendance. We have discussed this subject with you several times before. Now your attendance must meet our requirements or we will have to terminate you. Sincerely, Goodwill letters: Congratulations, Introductions, Condolence, Christmas and New Year Wishes A goodwill letter, as its name implies, is not written to obtain an order, or to collect outstanding bills. It is intended to pay for itself in another way, by building up goodwill. It is difficult to measure its value, but if this could be done businessmen would probably write goodwill letters more often. They give both the reader and writer pleasure when the occasion arises to enclose a gift, to send good wishes, to express thanks or to remember an anniversary. Letters of introduction can also be a great help, both to a young person starting out n a particular field of business and to the established businessman wishing to expand his operations. Goodwill letters let customers feel that they are in tough - in good times and bad - when business friends show sympathy, when they offer assistance, and when congratulations are due. I want to introduce you to Ms James, who worked with me at Connaught Centre for five years. She is a person of great intellect and work ability. Ms James is currently involved in a project which might be of interest to you, and he shall be contacting you soon to arrange a meeting. I am sure you will benefit if you agree to see her. My wife and I are coming to Delhi for a fairy long stay, as I have business there that will keep me several months. I know you have lived in Delhi for several years, and I wonder if you would kindly give us some introductions. Since I shall be very occupied, my wife may feel lonely at times. If she knew one or two people whom she could visit now and again, it would be very pleasant for her. I would be most grateful for your help. If there is anything I can do for you - either here in the states or when I am in Delhi - please do not hesitate to let me know. Near the close of another year, we would like to take this opportunity of thanking our friends and customers for their continued confidence and patronage. We send you and your families our best wishes for Christmas and a very prosperous New Year. An inquiry (also spelt enquiry) is sent when a businessman wants some information, especially about A businessman will save unnecessary correspondence by giving full details that are relevant. If a prospective customer approaches suppliers for the first time, it is useful to tell them something about his own business, the kind of goods he needs and for what purpose they are required. In this case of customers of long standing or repeat orders, the inquiry may be very simple. Often a phone call or a postcard will do. e. g. We saw your women's dresses and suits at the London Fashion Show held in New York on October 17. The lines you showed for teenagers, the "Swinger" dresses and trouser suits would be most suitable for our market. Would you kindly send us your quotation for spring and summer clothing that you could supply to us by the end of January next. We would require 2, 000 dresses and suits in each of the sizes 10-14, and 500 in sizes 8 and 16. Please quote c. i. f. Chicago prices. Payment is normally made by letter of credit. Our business agents in India have asked us for quotations for 10, 000 bicycles, to be exported to Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan and Nepal. Please let us know what quantities you are able to deliver at regular intervals, quoting your best terms f. o. b. Brisbane. We shall handle export formalities, but would ask you to calculate container transport to Brisbane for onward shipment. The quotation in reply to an inquiry may be a simple one, containing simply the prices and other information asked for. The sales-conscious businessman, however, will take the opportunity to stimulate his correspondent's interest in his goods or services by including a sales message and the assurance that the customer will receive personal attention. Offers are also sent without a preceding inquiry when a supplier wants to draw the attention of customers and new customers to a special product or range of goods. A firm offer is subject to certain conditions, a deadline for the receipt of orders, or a special price for certain quantities. e. g. (export quotation: firm offer, reply to the first inquiry example) We are pleased to make you an offer regarding our ‘Swinger’ dresses and trouser suits in the size you require. Nearly all the models you saw at our fashion show are obtainable, except trouser suits in pink, of which the smaller sizes have been sold out. This line is being manufactured continuously, but will only be available again in February, so could be delivered to you in March. All other models can be supplied by the middle of January 1998, subject to our receiving your form order by 15th of November. Our c. i. f. prices are understood to be for sea/land transport to Chicago. If you would prefer the goods to be sent by air freight, this will be charged extra at cost Sizes 12, 14 also in pink per 100 $2, 650. 00 Swinger dresses sizes 8-16 in white, Payment: by irrevocable letter of credit or cheque with order You will be receiving price-list, cutting of our materials and a colour chart. These were airmailed to you this morning. We hope you agree that our prices are very competitive for these good quality clothes, and look forward to receiving your initial order. In reply to your letter of 21st November, we have pleasure in enclosing a detailed quotation for bathroom showers. Besides those advertised in the "Builders' Journal", our illustrated catalogue also enclosed shows various types of bathroom fittings and the sixes available. Most types can be supplied from stock. Four-six weeks should be allowed for delivery of those marked with an asterisk. Building contractors all over Britain have found our equipment easy to install and attractive in appearance. Direct advertising, in the form of letters to a selected group of readers, is an effective way to promote sales. Such sales letters should appeal to the potential customer. They should: arouse the reader's attention convince him that these products or services are the best ones for him activate him to place an order Almost any communication can be used as a sales letter. Announcements to customers and others or important changes can be used to make your company, your products or services better known to the public, and to attract buyers. e. g. In the field of fruit preserves, English jams marmalades have been regarded as the best for the century and a half. Their reputation is spread by everyone who tastes them: they are recommended by word of mouth to relatives, friends and many prospective customers. English fruit farmers supply FARMARES with the best quality produce from their orchards and gardens. Fresh citrus fruits are imported from Spain and Israel all year round. |
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