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Ñîöèàëüíîå îáúÿâëåíèå ðàçâèòèÿ (english) - (ðåôåðàò)p>The co-evolutionary stage of the mentioned epochal cycle is identified with the beginning of the crisis of the Roman Republic– 133-131 BC – the Civil wars. 153-121 BC – Gaius Gracchus – an attempt of the agricultural reform. 101-44 BC – Gaius Julius Caesar. The incursions of Germanic tribes. The conclusion of the fourth epochal cycle is connected with the submission of Hellenistic states to Rome in 66-62 BC. Pompey– the campaign to the East. The submission of Judaea to Rome. The fifth Eurasian epochal cycle may be schematically presented in the following way. The revolutionary stage of the cycle began with the Rome’s transformation into the “world superpower”. 374 BC Herod I – the governor of Judaea. The beginning of the Christian calendar. 18-29 AD – China: The revolt of the “Red brows”. 68 AD –Apostle Peter is executed. The persecution of the Christians in the Roman Empire.The involutionary stage of the mentioned cycle is identified approximately with three centuries, approximately since the rule of Emperor Trajan (98-117 AD), when the Roman Empire reached the peak of its power and had regular trade contacts with China. The egression of Eurasia from the normative condition of development and the beginning of the co-evolutionary stage is connected with the peripetias of“the Great migration of nations”. 375 AD – the incursion of Huns into Europe. 395 AD –the Western Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire. 445 the campaigns of Attila (died in 453 AD). 449 AD the beginning of invasion of the British Isles by the Anglo-Saxons. Byzantine Empire: 482-565 AD– the rule of Justinian. 481-511 AD –Chlodwig, the king of Franks. Besides the Great migration of nations, the most important events of this stage of the cycle are connected with the entrance of a new world religion, Islam, to the historical stage (570-632 AD– Mohammed, the 20th of September, 622 – the beginning of Islamic Chronology) and with the “awakening” of the Slavs (623-658 –the state of Samo on the territory of the contemporary Czechia and Moravia in the struggle against the Avar khanate). 661-750–the Caliphate of Omayyads. (The control over the territory from Central Asia to Spain). 618-906– China: the Dynasty of T’ang. 645-858 – Japan: the emperorship. 726-843 Byzantine Empire: iconomachy. The evolutionary stage of the fifth Eurasian epochal cycle is identified with the rule of Carolus Magnus (768-814), who was the virtual emperor of Western Europe since 800. 756–the papal States (Vatican) were created. Rus: 862-879 Rurik. The influence of the Varangians. 863 AD– Cyril and Methodius, the creation of the Slavic writing. 864 AD – Bulgaria accepted the Christianity. 843 AD –Verdun: the division of the Empire of Carolus Magnus (France, Italy, Germany). 966 AD– Poland: Latin Christianity, 988 AD – Rus – Byzantine Christianity. 1054 AD –Pope Leo IX and Constantinopolitan patriarch Michael Cerullary laid anathema upon each other. The split: the Catholic and the Orthodox. 1071 AD–the defeat of Byzantine Empire in the battle with Turks-Seljucks near Manazkert. 1077 AD– Canossa. Henry IV – Gregorius VII – the war between the civil and the spiritual authorities for the investiture. The evolutionary stage of the fifth epochal cycle comprises eight crusades (1096-1270) that culturally lifted European monarchies to the level of development of West Asian nations and, at the same time, spiritually prepared West Europeans to the period of the Great colonial seizures of XVII-XIX centuries. In the Asian part of Eurasia, the evolutionary stage of the epochal cycle is connected with the rise and decline of the Mongol domination. 1155-1227 – Temuchin (Chingiskhan). The sixth Eurasian epochal cycle began with the Early Renaissance in Italy: 1304-1374– Francesco Petrarca; 1313-1375 – Jiovanni Boccaccio. 1378-1449 – the great split in the Catholic Church. 1380 –the Kulikovo battle. The beginning of the growth of the Moscowian czardom. The Hundred Years’ war between England and France. 1410-1431 – Joan of Arc. 1453 – the fall of Constantinople. 1440 – Johann Gutenberg: the technology of printing. 1371-1415 – Jan Hus. The beginning of the Reformation in Europe. 1492 – the “discovery” of America by Columbus. 1517 – Luther – theses. 1541 – the victory of Calvin in Geneva. 1556-1598 – Philip II the Spanish. 1581 – the independence of the Netherlands (1648). 1520-1566 – Suleyman I Kanuni. The blossom of the Ottoman Empire. The involutionary phase of the cycle comprises practically the 17th century, when Europe changed the rhythm of historical development of numerous nations of Asia, Africa, America by its colonial seizures. 1618-1648– the Thirty Year’s war between the Catholic and the Protestant unions in Europe. The genesis of the system of the European balance. 1683–the defeat of the Turks near Vienna. The beginning of a decline of the Ottoman Empire (till 1918). The transition from the normative to transitive condition at the co-evolutionary stage of the cycle is connected with the European epoch of Enlightenment. 1700-1721 – the Northern War. The transformation of Russia to the Eurasian empire. 1756-1763 – the Seven Years’ War that spread from Europe to the British and French colonies. 1789-1794 – the Great French Revolution. 1848-1849 – bourgeois-democratic revolutions in Europe. 1868 – the Meiji” reforms in Japan. 1908 – the Young Turkish revolution. 1911 – Sin-Hai Revolution in China. 1917-1921 – Revolution in Russia. The evolutionary stage of the sixth Eurasian epochal cycle is connected with the process of“globalization” and “modernization” of the entire Eurasian area. 1914-1918 – the First World War. 1929-1933 – the Great Depression. 1939-1945 – the Second World War. 1949-1989 – “the cold war”. 1958 – the creation of the European Economic Community. 1978 – reforms in the People’s Republic of China. 1985-1991 – the “perestroika” in the USSR. 1979 – the Islamic revolution in Iran. 1990-1991 –the disintegration of the USSR and Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. 1999– the operation of the NATO in Kosovo. Unlike Eurasia, America has no such number of epochal cycles. The beginning of the first of them is connected with the ancient state formations in South America (1800-1500 BC–Peru). The revolutionary phase of the cycle is identified with the migration of nations on the continent (near 1100 BC). Maya. 1200 BC– 400 BC – the Chovine culture in Peru. 4th century BC – 8th century AD – the culture of Nasca (Peru). The involutionary phase of the cycle on the boundary of our era is connected with the immanent development of the civilization of Maya (Northern Yucatan). The middle of the X century– the struggle between the Maya and Toltec. 1000 AD – the Vikings in Greenland, near 1200 AD –the Cusco valley. The overcoming of the normative condition is connected with the discovery of America by Columbus. The co-evolutionary stage started since 1492. 1438-1463– Sapa Inca. 1490 – intestine feuds between the Incans: Uaskar against Ataualpa. 1500 – the discovery of Brazil by Cobral. 1519-1521 – the invasion of Mexico by Cortes. 1531-1533 – Pizarro defeated the Incans. 1535 – Canada – the property of France. 1570 – the North American Iroquois league. 1607 – Virginia: Puritans. The evolutionary stage of the cycle is ended with the colonization of North America by the Englishmen and Frenchmen, and South America–by the Spaniards and the Portuguese. For America, the first epochal cycle came to its end in the middle of the 18th century. The second epochal cycle began with the revolutionary events. 1775-1783 – the War of Independence of the USA. 1810-1822 – the independence of the South American states from Spain. 1783-1730 – Simon Bolivar. 1823 – the Monroe doctrine. 1861–1865 – the Civil War in the USA. 1898 –the war of the USA against Spain. The establishment of the US hegemony in South and Central America. The involutionary stage of the cycle lasts till the middle of the 20th century and is characterized by the domination of the military regimes in most South American countries. The period of 1900-1945 is connected with the immanent preparation of the USA to playing the role of“the single superpower”. The co-evolutionary stage of the second epochal cycle began with the revolution in Cuba (1959), 1973-1989 – the rule of Pinochet in Chile, 1979 –the revolution in Nicaragua. For South and Central America, the end of the 20th century is connected with a gradual democratization of political regimes and integrational processes. 1995– MERCOSUR: Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay. 1993 –NAFTA: USA, Canada, Mexico. The free trade area from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego is planned to be created by 2005. On December 31, 1999, the USA quitted the Panama Canal Zone (1914). In fact, America entered the evolutionary stage of the cycle. Africa was the cradle of the man. The most ancient state formations belong to the Egyptian civilization. The revolutionary stage of the first epochal cycle began practically with the emergence of the Old Egyptian Kingdom (3000-2800 BC) and the period of building the Pyramids. The involutionary stage of the cycle is identified with the division of Egyptian nomes along the stream of Nile (near 1750 BC). It comprises about 1200 years substantially connected with the peak of might of the Ancient Egypt. The co-evolutionary stage of the first African epochal cycle is connected with the history of the Late Egyptian kingdom (664-525 BC) and, in fact, ends with the war between Carthage and Rome for domination over the Mediterranean region and with the emergence of the Hellenistic Egypt near 200 BC. This event became the beginning of the evolutionary stage of the cycle that ended in the 7th century with the process of Islamization of Egypt. The second African epochal cycle is connected with the history of the Negro-Australoid race (which consists of three subraces: Negritic, Negrilic, Bushman) and the transitional Ethiopian subrace. The revolutionary stage of the cycle began on the boundary of Anno Domini with the emergence of the first state formations. West Africa: Ghana (III-XIII centuries AD), Mali (XIII-XVII centuries AD), the Songhai (Ghao) Empire (XIII-XVI centuries AD), Kanem-Bornu (VII-XVII centuries AD). Central Africa: Congo (X-XIII centuries AD), North-East Africa: the Acsum kingdom (III-IV centuries AD). Acsum embraced the Monophysite Christianity in the 4th century, which allowed Ethiopia to defend its independence in the colonial epoch. The 13th century– the peak of the might of Ethiopia. The involutionary stage of the cycle is characterized by the beginning of the colonial seizures of Europeans (XV-XVI centuries). The export of Negro slaves to America delivered the blow upon the social relations of the African nations, which limited the possibilities of progressive development. In fact, the 300-400 years of colonial dependence deepened the external dependence of Africa by preserving the archaic social structure. The co-evolutionary stage of the cycle is connected with the beginning of the process of decolonization. 1833– the abolition of slavery in the British Empire. 1847 – the independence of Liberia (ex-American Negro slaves), 1858 – the Republic of South Africa. 1808-1830 – the reforms of Mohammed Ali in Egypt. 1869 – the opening of the Suez Canal. The evolutionary stage of the second African epochal cycle began in the 1960’s with the establishment of independence of African countries and will last about one century. Australia has a specific history. The large territory, inhabited on the boundary of Anno Domini by Aborigines practically did not have any state formations till the discovery of the continent by the Europeans (1606–the Dutchman Willem Jantz). In fact, the revolutionary stage of the first Australian epochal cycle begins in the middle of the 18th century (1768-1779–James Cook). The involutionary stage is identified with the war of the European immigrants against the Aborigines in the 19th–the first part of the 20th century. The co-evolutionary stage began in the latter half of the 20th century with the creation of a civilization that has an European identity. Antarctica is the sixth continent of the Earth with the area of 50 million square kilometers, being twice more than the area of Australia. It is discovered in 1820 by Bellingshausen and Lazarev, the great Russian navigators. Prior to this moment, the history of the continent remained under the ice cover. The international-legal status of Antarctica is defined by the corresponding treaty of the 1st of December, 1959, which foresees the exploitation of the territory of Antarctica for peaceful purposes only, prohibits declaring the territorial claims in Antarctica, and ensures the freedom of scientific researches under the condition that natural resources be conserved and preserved [59 The International Law [in Russian]. – Moscow, 1995. – P. 556-557. ]. Having viewed the main points of the scheme of development of epochal cycles at the global (macro) and regional (medi) levels, we focus our attention at the research of historical cycles at the national-state (micro) level, which corresponds to the scale of our research in general. The criteria for construction of a similar sampling may be the following: various states should be represented, first, countries of all continents, second, countries belonging to various world religions, and, third, countries with the population of at least 8 million persons as of the end of the 1990’s. According to the criteria given above, the required sampling may be the following: First of all, we would like to emphasize the existence of the most characteristic peculiarities of the microlevel of development of cycles. Firstly, ethnic differences are becoming more clear, secondly, the chronology is changing since various nations created their political organizations in different times, thirdly, the differences in the number of epochal cycles are defined more clear, which is the consequence, on the one hand, of the historical age of a nation, and, on the other hand, of the intensity of its history. It is worth to note that the construction of schemes of the development of epochal cycles for all countries of the presented sampling is the subject of a special research. That is why, we only demonstrate the work of our conception by the example of 11 countries, included into the representative research sampling of 50 countries. Now let us directly examine the scheme of epochal cycles of Vatican, Italy, Germany, Great Britain, France, Ukraine, Russia, Belorussia, China, India, Japan, and the USA, representing the historical advance-guard of Europe, Asia, and America in the sampling presented above. The papal States is the center of the catholic world. In the context of the offered conception, we deal with a specific object. The history of Vatican cannot be examined at the national level, as the territory of the state is only 4. 4 km2, and the population is about 1 thousand people, mainly Catholic chaplains and the Swiss Guards. However, the state of Vatican as the embodiment of spiritual authority of the Catholic Church that has a global spreading, exerted the influence on the course of history. That is why, in our opinion, it is rightful to show the hypothetical scheme of development of the epochal cycles of Vatican. The first epochal cycle began on the boundary of Anno Domini since the revolutionary period, whose content was the birth of Christianity as a world religion and a gradual creation of Church structures. The specific event, symbolizing this phase of development, may be the Apocalypse of St. John the Divine (68-69 AD). The involutionary stage of the first epochal cycle (70-313 AD) has, as its content, the struggle between the nascent Christian Church with the state machinery of the Roman Empire. That was the period of mass terror against Christians. In 313 AD, the Milanese edict on the latitude in religion, which turned Christianity into the state religion, was published, and the co-evolutionary stage of the cycle began. Chronologically, this phase continued till 395 when the Roman Empire split into the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. For the analysis, it is important that this event legalized the differences between the Western and Eastern Christianity. The evolutionary stage is connected with the history of decline and downfall of the Western Roman Empire (395-476 AD). During this period, the temporal power of Roman Popes is strengthening. They tried to organize a rebuff to Barbarian attacks. But to realize such intentions without necessary material and military resources turned out to be impossible. The subsequent events of VI-VII centuries turned the papal throne into the small change of Barbarian kings, who occupied an ambivalent position. On the one side, in interests of the reinforcement of their political influence, they gradually Christianized, on the other side, they shamelessly robbed Christians. The situation was overcome by the formal creation of the papal States (756), followed by the victory of the king of franks Pippinus Brevis over Langobards and consolidation of the territory under Pope Stefan III [60 Lozinsky S. G. History of papacy [in Russian]. – Moscow, 1986. – P. 55. ]. These events symbolize the revolutionary phase of the second epochal cycle. The content of the new involutionary period (760-800) was a gradual strengthening of Pope’s position in spiritual and civilian affairs of Europe, reaching its culmination with the coronation of Carolus Magnus (800). The co-evolutionary phase of the cycle may be the turn to the policy of intense Christianization of Barbarian nations of the Old continent (800-846). The evolutionary period lasts from 846 through 960 when the growing authority of Rome favored the organization of an attempt of giving a rebuff to the Arabian attacks at the Southern Italy (846) and stimulated the creation of the Holy Roman Empire in 960. In fact, it meant combining the dominative possibilities of Germanic emperors with the spiritual influence of the Holy See and represented“marriage of convenience”. At the same time, growing contradictions between the Eastern and the Western Christianity led to the disruption of the Church to the Catholic and Orthodox ones in 1054. These revolutionary events opened a new epochal cycle of development of Vatican. The Lateran Synod of 1059 concluded that the only electorate of the Pope is the College of Cardinals but not civil feudalists. The content of the involutionary stage of the cycle is the exacerbation of struggle for the supremacy in the feudalist hierarchy between spiritual and civil powers. The most important event became the“travel”of Germanic emperor Heinrich IV to Canossa (1077), that led to a natural weakening of both the spiritual and civil powers and to the spread of heretical sects on the territory of Western Europe. The activity of Pope Innocentius (1198-1216), the symbol of the milestone in the history of Vatican and creation of the Dominican Society in 1215, which prepared the personnel for the Inquisition, was the co-evolutionary phase of development. The history of this period is marked by the activity of such prominent theologians as St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), Albertus Magnus (1206-1280), and Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). In the following evolutionary period of the cycle (1216-1309), the fall of authority of the Catholic Church and its structures took place. It was favored by low moral qualities of Popes, the acquisitiveness of the church, and the growth of prices of indults. The political subordination of the papacy to French kings became an obligate consequence of the events described above. It was the so-called Avignon capture of popes that became the symbol of social revolution and marked the beginning of the fourth epochal cycle. The further events reflected the tendency to a strengthening of national hierarchies of the Catholic Church. The remarkable event of the involutionary period of the cycle became the plague epidemic in Western Europe (1348-1349), which not only cut the number of parishioners but undermined the faith. The spirit of tendencies was reflected in the activity of John Wyclif, the professor of theology at Oxford (1320-1384), who demanded abolishment of the pope system and secularizing the property of the Church. His ideas did non gain a wide social support then. The co-evolutionary (reformist) phase of the cycle is connected with the activity of Jan Hus (1369-1415). He was the very person who created the necessary spiritual atmosphere for the future Reformation. The fight of the Catholic hierarchy, well-equipped by the civil authority against the Czech taborits defeated ultimately in 1434, became the repetition of religious wars in Europe. The evolutionary phase of the cycle lasts from the Florentian Union (1439) –a formal union of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, aimed to save Constantinople from the Turks–to the commencement of the Reformation (1517). In this period, the Inquisition becomes more active, as was guided by the instructions given in“Massacre of Witches”(1487). But a decrease of authority of the traditional Catholic Church structures was not stopped by any means. The revolutionary stage of the fifth epochal cycle is identified with the beginning of the Reformation (1517)– the declaration of Martin Luther’s 95 theses including the demand for abolishment of indults, justification of faith regardless of Catholic structures, cheap church, and the possibility of worship in national languages. As a result of the partial victory of the Reformation, the influence of the Catholic Church decreased. That is the content of the involution phase of the cycle. Vatican’s attempts to restore its positions by means of the Counter-Reformation resulted in the mass terror of the Inquisition, prohibition of freethinking (during 1559-1966, “Indices of Prohibited Books”were regularly published). The involutionary phase lasted to 1648, till the end of the war between coalitions of Catholic and Protestant states. The co-evolutionary phase of the cycle (1648-1656) was connected, firstly, with the renewal of Vatican’s control over national catholic hierarchies of Spain, Portugal, France, and Italy and, secondly, with the creation of the Protestant church hierarchy. The evolutionary phase of the cycle (1665-1789) is connected with the fight of the papacy for preserving its influence upon national states. The process became particularly critical because of the struggle for integration of Italy. The Great French Revolution (1789-1792) delivered a blow at the Holy See. The Italian campaign of Napoleon livened up the activity of Italian patriots, directed against the papal States. The Pope became the prisoner of the revolutionary situation which opened the sixth epochal cycle. In the following involutionary stage (1801-1870), the forces of the united Italy, notwithstanding the proclaimed principle of Pope’s infallibility, liquidated the papal States. The co-evolutionary phase of the cycle (1871-1880) included a further desecularization of life in most European countries. The bright example was the Kulturkampf of Bismarck in the German Empire and the Pope’s declaration of being a king’s prisoner. In the evolutionary period of the cycle (1880-1928), the Catholic structures tuned themselves to the new tendencies of development. “The separation of the Church and the State”, the forced refusal from attempts of dictating moral and law norms to parishioners, the acknowledgement of the principle“render to Caesar the things which are Caesar's” opened the way for reconciliation between Vatican and the Italian state. The revolutionary phase of the seventh epochal cycle began with the Lateran agreements between Benito Mussolini and the Pope on creation of the State of the town of Vatican with the rights of a political subject (1929-1933). In the following involutionary period, the Concordat with Hitler is realized, and a struggle with the godless Soviet regime grows. Vatican is trying to preserve the Church’s institutions under the conditions of the Second World War and takes the function of the spiritual shield of the Christian civilization. The co-evolutionary phase may be hypothetically linked to the Second Vatican Synod (1962-1966), which became a successful attempt of modernization of the Catholic Church. During this period, the worship in national languages was allowed, national Episcopal conferences were established, the representatives of which formed the Pope Synod, and“The Index of Prohibited Books”was abolished. The evolutionary stage of development (since 1966) includes such important events as the election of Karol Voityla (John Paul II) to the Holy See against the 400-year monopoly of Italians, the display of new tendencies of the informational society– the creation of Vatican’s web page in the Internet (1997), public discussions on virtual confession, women’s right to be priests, permissibility of aborts, etc. 8. 2. Italy Italy has the most ancient historical tradition among the European countries mentioned above. This tradition made a significant influence upon the European civilization. The beginning of the first epochal cycle is identified with the following historical events: 753 BC– the traditional date of the foundation of Rome. King’s period. The revolutionary stage of the cycle is associated with the proscription of Tarquins from Rome in 510 BC and the establishment of Republic. 494 BC– the beginning of a social fight between plebeians and patricians. 356 BC –the first plebeian dictator. The involutionary stage is identified with the crisis development of the Roman republic. Wars against Cartage: 264-241 BC– the first Punic war. 232 BC – agrarian law of Flaminius. Land crisis. 218-201 BC – the second Punic war. Hannibal. “Delenda est Carthago”. The third Punic war of 149-146 BC may be considered the turning point, the co-evolutionary phase of the first epochal cycle. This transient process covered the period when the political subordination of Greece and the crisis of the republican form of rule took place. Rome invaded the Hellenistic Egypt in 30 BC, and the evolutionary period of the first epochal cycle in the development of the country began since that time. The origin of Christianity (313 AD) and acknowledging Christianity as the state religion by Emperor Constantine were the social revolution phase and the change of the social-cultural code of development of the Roman Empire. The revolutionary stage lasted up to 395 AD–the breakdown of the Roman Empire to the Eastern and Western ones (Byzantium 1453–the fall of Constantinople). The Western Roman Empire obtained a steady development of the involutionary stage of the second epochal cycle during the period of“the Great migration of peoples”, Attila’s rule (435-453 AD), the fall of Rome (476 AD), the last attempt of restoring the unity between the Western and Eastern Empires, the rule of Justinian–the Emperor of Byzantium (482-565). According to M. Weber, the result of this rule is the culture that, on reaching its peak, loses the material base and turns into ruins [61 Weber M. Sociology: General historical analyses. Policy [in Ukrainian]. – Kyiv, 1998. – P. 31. ]. However, the spiritual reincarnation will occur in the Renaissance period, at a new historical stage. The co-evolutionary phase of the second epochal cycle is connected with the“romanization” of Barbarian Europe, preservation of the Italian cultural area. Young nations “civilized”by falling under the influence of this area. Characteristic is the history of the state of Langobards (568-774). With the proclamation of Carolus Magnus as the emperor, one may speak about the entrance of Italy into the steady evolutionary period of development. The proclamation of the Roman Empire by the Germanic nation in 962 may be associated with the same period. The South of Italy came under the Byzantine and Arabic influence. The decisions of the Lateran Synod (since 1059) were a new quality of development, a new social form, and the revolutionary phase. They symbolized the successful attempt to synthesize of spiritual and civil hegemony of Popes. Therefore, the beginning of the third epochal cycleis identified with the development of capitalist relations in Italian towns-states. According to M. Weber, the mediaeval sea trade towns are the nearest to typical antique big ones, but there are principal differences between industrial towns and antique polises [62 Weber M. Sociology: General historical analyses. Policy [in Ukrainian]. – Kyiv, 1998. – P. 35. ]. The involutionary stage (considering its results) was most productive for the South, which significantly lagged behind the North in social and economic development. These regional distinctions remain till the present moment. The Norman invasion of the Southern Italy and Sicily (1130) and transition of control over these territories to Aragon (Hispanic) dynasty also may be included to that involutionary period. Later it became the reason for Italic wars of the XVI century. The most important events in the history of the Northern Italy at the given stage are as follows: |
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